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| 26-02-2024 (61 ) | Categoria: RFID |
Various RFID transponders
Universal RFID handheld reader for 125 kHz, 134 kHz and 13.56 MHz; optional barcode
Device for UHF tags, 630 mW power
RFID Bluetooth handheld reader for 13.56 MHz, with ferrite antenna for reading very small metal transponder
Android 5.1 mobile device with LF and HF RFID in one device
RFID (radio-frequency identification [] "identification using electromagnetic waves") is a technology for transmitter-receiver systems for the automatic and contactless identification and localization of objects and living beings using radio waves.
An RFID system consists of a transponder (colloquially also known as a radio tag), which is located on or in the object or living being and contains an identifying code, as well as a reader for reading this identifier.
RFID transponders can be as small as a grain of rice and can be implanted, for example in pets. In addition, it is possible to produce RFID transponders from polymers using a special printing process of stable circuits. [1] The advantages of this technology result from the combination of the small size, the unobtrusive readout option (e.g. in the case of the new ID card introduced in Germany on 1 November 2010) and the low price of the transponders (sometimes in the cent range).
The coupling takes place by alternating magnetic fields generated by the reader at a short range or by high-frequency radio waves. This not only transmits data, but also supplies the transponder with energy. To achieve longer ranges, active transponders with their own power supply are used, but these are associated with higher costs.
The reader contains software (a microprogram) that controls the actual reading process and RFID middleware with interfaces to other computer systems.
The first RFID applications were used in the air war between Great Britain and Germany at the end of World War II. There, a secondary radar was used for friend-foe detection. [2] Transponders and reading units were installed in the planes and tanks to detect whether or not the position or aircraft to be shot at were to be attacked. To this day, successor systems are used in the armies. Harry Stockman is considered to be the one who laid the foundations of RFID with his publication "Communication by Means of Reflected Power" in October 1948. [3]
At the end of the 1960s, "Siemens Car Identification", or SICARID for short, was developed as one of many proprietary solutions. This made it possible to clearly identify first railway wagons and later car parts in the paint shop. It was used until the 1980s. The identification carriers were cavity resonators, which could cover a data space of 12 bits by screwing in screws. They were queried by a linear frequency ramp. These cavity resonators can be regarded as the first purely passive transponders that can be interrogated by electromagnets. The first passive backscatter transponder of the type still used today with its own digital logic circuit was not presented until 1975 in an IEEE paper.
In the 1970s, the first primitive commercial precursors of RFID technology were introduced to the market. These were Electronic Article Surveillance (EAS) systems. By checking for the presence of the marking, an alarm can be triggered in the event of theft. The systems were based on high-frequency technology or low- or medium-frequency induction transmission.
The year 1979 brought numerous new developments and applications for RFID technology. One focus was on applications for agriculture, such as animal identification, e.g. for racing pigeons, livestock and other domestic animals.
Since the 1980s, the application of RFID technology has been promoted in particular by the decision of several American states and Norway to use RFID transponders in road traffic for toll systems. In the 1990s, RFID technology, such as RFID technology, was introduced. the E-ZPass, widely used in the USA for toll systems.
This was followed by new systems for electronic locks, access controls, cashless payments, ski passes, fuel cards, electronic immobilizers and so on. [4][5]
In 1999, the establishment of the Auto-ID Center at MIT heralded the development of a global standard for goods identification. With the completion of the work on the Electronic Product Code (EPC), the Auto-ID Center[6] was closed in 2003. At the same time, the results were handed over to EPCglobal Inc., which was newly founded by the Uniform Code Council (UCC) and EAN International (now GS1 US and GS1).
In 2006, researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Technology and Advanced Materials (IFAM) in Bremen succeeded for the first time in casting temperature-insensitive RFID transponders into metallic components made of light metal. This process development makes it possible to replace the conventional methods for product identification of cast components with RFID technology and to integrate the RFID transponders directly into the component during component production in the die-casting process. In 2011, IFAM announced that it had also succeeded in integrating an RFID chip with the additive manufacturing process of laser melting into surgical instruments with complex inner workings. [7]
The RFID transponders differ from each other depending on the transmission frequency, manufacturer and intended use. An RFID transponder consists of an antenna, an electrical circuit for receiving and transmitting (transceiver) and a digital circuit with memory. All electronics are often integrated into a single microchip.
RFID transponders have a memory that can be written at least once, which contains their immutable identity. If multiple writable memories are used, further information can be stored during the service life.
Depending on the area of application, key figures such as clock frequency, transmission rate, service life, cost per unit, storage space, read range and range of functions differ.
In systems that are standardised in accordance with ISO 18000-1 et seq., the transmission of identification information is carried out as follows: The reader, which, depending on the type, may also be able to write data, generates a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field to which the RFID transponder (RFID tag) is exposed. The high-frequency energy it receives through the antenna serves as a power supply for its chip during the communication process. In the case of active tags, the power supply can also be provided by a built-in battery. In the case of semi-active tags, the battery only takes over the power supply of the microchip.
The microchip in the RFID tag, thus activated, decodes the commands sent by the reader. The response encodes and modulates the RFID tag into the irradiated electromagnetic field by attenuating the field in the non-contact short circuit or counter-phase reflection of the field emitted by the reader. In this way, the tag transmits its serial number (UID), other data of the marked object or other information requested by the reader. The tag itself does not generate a field, but influences the electromagnetic transmission field of the reader.
Depending on the type, the RFID tags operate in the range of longwave at 125 kHz, 134 kHz, 250 kHz, medium wave at 375 kHz, 500 kHz, 625 kHz, 750 kHz, 875 kHz, shortwave (HF) at 13.56 MHz, UHF at 865-869 MHz (European frequencies) or 950 MHz (US and Asian frequency bands) or SHF at 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz. The approved frequencies for LF and UHF tags differ regionally for Asia, Europe and the Americas and are coordinated by the ITU.
RF tags use load modulation, which means that they consume part of the energy of the alternating magnetic field by short-circuiting. This can be detected by the reader, but theoretically also by a more distant receiver. The antennas of an RF tag form an induction coil with several turns.
UHF tags, on the other hand, work in the far electromagnetic field to transmit the response; the process is called modulated backscattering. The antennas are usually linear, folded dipoles or spiral, the chip sits in the middle between the antenna of the RFID tag.
In order for a tag to be read both horizontally and vertically, circular polarization is often used. Although this reduces the signal-to-noise ratio, it is irrelevant in which orientation the tag is glued to the goods. Since water absorbs the UHF energy very strongly and metal reflects these electromagnetic waves very strongly, these materials influence the propagation of the antenna fields. Furthermore, dielectric substrate materials 'detune' the resonant frequency of the antennas, so it is necessary to precisely match UHF tags to the materials of the marked objects.
UHF or SHF technology is designed to be much more complex than LF or HF technology. Due to their speed, UHF and SHF tags can transmit significantly longer data sets in one passage.
For example, a passive UHF tag according to ISO/IEC 18000–6C requires an operating current of about 0.35 microamps for the chip. This is provided by the radiation field of the reader. Since the intensity decreases quadratically with distance, the reader has to transmit correspondingly strongly. Between 0.5 and 2 watts of EIRP transmit power are required. Semi-active tags require much less transmitting power from the reader.
For more complex applications, cryptography modules or external sensors such as GPS can also be integrated into the RFID transponder. The RFID transceiver units differ in range, range of functions and design. They are installed, for example, in shelves or personnel locks (access control, gate entrances).
The large number of different devices and labels is fully compatible within the framework of the various standards (ISO/IEC standards ISO/IEC 18000-x). However, new proprietary solutions are constantly being introduced that deviate from these standards and in some cases cannot be used in a neighborhood at the same time.
Problems can arise if the RFID transponder sits directly on a product that is electromagnetically incompatible with the selected tag. In order to circumvent electromagnetic adaptation problems, so-called flap or flag tags are used in logistics, among other things, which protrude at a right angle from the marked article and thus have a greater distance from it.
The read success (read rate) of an RFID solution can be affected by a variety of errors (tag defective, electromagnetic interference, movement in the wrong direction, too fast or too close to each other, etc.).
125 kHz transponder with coil on ferrite core
13.56 MHz transponder with printed coil
ISO 15693 13.56 MHz transponder, miniature
Close-up of a screw head with a 13.56 MHz transponder pressed into the center
Transponders consist of:
The size is determined by the size of the antenna and the housing. The microchip can be manufactured in a comparatively small size. With the exception of the antenna, all the necessary electronic components are integrated into the microchip.
The shape and size of the antenna depends on the frequency or wavelength and application. Depending on the required application, transponders are offered in different designs, sizes and protection classes. In addition to the frequency, the range of passive transponders depends largely on the antenna or coil size (inlay size). The range decreases rapidly for both UHF and HF with smaller antennas.
Depending on the area of application, active RFID transponders can be the size of a book (e.g. in container logistics). On the other hand, it is now also possible to manufacture passive RFID transponders that are flat enough to be embedded in banknotes or paper. For example, small versions for 2.4 GHz are 50 × 50 μm in size[8].
At the beginning of development around 1980, transponders were initially produced and used primarily as "LF 125 kHz passive". ISOCARD and CLAMSHELL card designs from the LF-125 kHz range are the world's most widely used designs in the field of access control and time recording. In the same way, there are also designs that are built into the car key (immobilizer) or serve as implants, rumen boli or ear tags for the identification of animals. In addition, there is the possibility of integration into nails or PU disk TAGs for pallet identification, into chipcoins (billing systems, e.g. in public baths) or into chip cards (access control).
In the field of electronic tickets, electronic wallets or electronic IDs, the 13.56 MHz Mifare or ICODE technology is used in accordance with standards such as ISO 15693. The transponder chips are manufactured by NXP Semiconductors, among others. In this area, there are also special transponders that can be used directly in metallic objects such as metallic tools. The structure is based on a winding body for the antenna coil and carrier for the transponder chip. In order to protect the transponder from external mechanical influences and chemical media and to make it sufficiently durable for press-fit into a 4 mm hole hole, appropriate housing shapes are available. These transponders, which also operate in the 13.56 MHz band, can only be read at close range due to the shielding effect of the metallic environment. It is therefore necessary to hold the readout device and the antenna coil directly on the transponder in the form of a pin about 4 mm thick. [9]
The clearest distinguishing feature is the type of power supply of the RFID transponders.
RFID transponders with their own power supply enable longer ranges, lower latencies, but a larger range of functions, such as temperature monitoring of refrigerated transports, are more expensive. Therefore, they are used where the objects to be identified or tracked are themselves more expensive, such as reusable bins (containers) or trucks for toll collection.
Battery Transponders are usually in sleep mode and do not emit any information until they are activated (triggered) by a special activation signal. This increases the service life of the energy source to months to years. There are two types of battery-powered RFID transponders:
So far, various ISM frequency bands have been proposed for use and some of them have been released throughout Europe or internationally:
The older types of RFID transponders send their information in plain text, as provided for in the ISO/IEC 18000 standard. Newer models also have the option of transmitting their data in encrypted form or not opening parts of the data storage to everyone who can access it. In the case of special RFID transponders, which are used, for example, to control access to external mobile security media, the RFID information is already transmitted encrypted in accordance with the AES standard with 128-bit.
Keying/modulation is a method of conducting digital signals over analog transmission channels. The term keying comes from the early days of the telegraph. Modulation methods include:
Higher modulation methods such as phase jitter modulation are used in RFID systems when a large number of RFIDs in close proximity are to be read almost simultaneously.
Encoding determines between the sender and receiver how the digital data is recoded in such a way that it is optimally adapted to the characteristics of the transmission channel, in this case the radio link. The most commonly used channel coding methods in the RFID sector are:
A special case are SAW tags that use SAW effects. The identifier is encoded in the transit time of the reflected signals.
The term bulk detection refers to the use of known protocols in which individual RFID tags are read immediately after each other, whereby this process organizes itself. This means that
Many applications of this radio-technical separation, also known as "singulation", are intended to enable the receiver to recognize the different identities of the existing tags one after the other. The concept is provided for in the standard in various forms, but has not yet been widely used. Other proprietary versions can be found from the various manufacturers. Technical problems with passive tags are not changed by the fact that active tags can arbitrarily contact a recipient.
RFID tags alone do not solve the following problem:
a good reading success.
Since the first reports until today, there are no known bulk detection facilities that ensure complete coverage (2011) and would therefore be suitable for an inventory or a check of completeness.
If there is no anti-collision and mute mode in the read process, geometric isolation outside the reading area and the limitation to one day in each reading area is the procedure with a generally better detection rate.
Anti-collision describes a set of procedures that enable the tags to communicate simultaneously, i.e. to exclude the overlapping of several different signals. The anti-collision procedure regulates compliance with the order or spacing of the responses, for example by sending these responses randomly so that the recipient can read each tag individually. The performance of the anti-collision procedures is measured in the unit "tags/s". There are four basic types of anti-collision or multi-access procedures:
Typical anti-collision methods in the RFID sector are:
All RFID tags must be clearly labeled so that the recipient can recognize responses/requests of all tags:[11] RFID tags in which this marking can be changed are of no practical value for secure process control in an open system (example: EPC Generation 1).
Minimum features of an RFID system are:
Many tags also support one or more of the following operations:
RFID can exchange data with the reader in duplex mode or sequentially. A distinction is made:
The capacity of the writable memory of an RFID chip ranges from a few bits to several KBytes. The 1-bit transponders, for example, are in article surveillance labels and only allow the distinction "there" or "not there".
The data record of the transponder is stored firmly in it as a running unique number (inherent identity) when it is manufactured, or as non-unique data (e.g. batch number) when it is used. Modern tags can also be changed later or described with additional data.
Writable transponders currently mostly use the following storage technologies:
Passive transponders take their operating voltage from the electromagnetic field of the reader. The reader "illuminates" the chip and it reflects a small part of the energy. Therefore, passive transponders need a powerful reading field.
Semi-passive (also called semi-active) transponders have a (backup) battery for volatile storage and for operating connected sensors, but not for data transmission. The energy ratio between "illumination" and reflection is the same as that of passive tags.
Active transponders use batteries for the processor and also for data transfer, are equipped with their own transmitter and thus achieve a longer range. The query signal from the reader is about as low as the transponder's transmission signal, so the reading process for active transponders is particularly low-interference compared to passive transponders.
Beacon transmitters, which transmit continuously intermittently and do not respond to an excitation, always work with batteries (primary batteries or accumulators). The energy ratio between the query and the response signal is the same as that of active tags. The transmitting process for beacon transponders is particularly low-interference compared to passive transponders, despite the constant transmitting function.
In Germany, active transponders are also classified as telemetry devices (see below). Telemetry SRDs (radio links over short distances, e.g. from sensors) are also sometimes referred to as RFID, they use an active transmitter that is supplied with energy, for example, by solar cells or the movement of the object (e.g. tire pressure sensor). In warm-blooded organisms, the supply from a temperature difference is also in development. [14]
| Frequency | Range | Allowed frequencies (ISM band) |
|---|---|---|
| Long Wave Frequencies (LF) | 30... 300 kHz | 9... 135 kHz |
| Shortwave Frequencies (HF) | 3... 30 MHz | 6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz, 27.125 MHz, 40.680 MHz |
| Decimeter waves (UHF) | 0,3... 3 GHz | 433.920 MHz, 868 MHz, 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz |
| Microwaves (SHF) | > 3 GHz | 5.8 GHz, 24.125 GHz |
Flag tag label with integrated RFID chip
According to English usage, the following distinctions have been established:[15]
| Frequency | Typical Max Reach for Tags | Typical Applications |
|---|---|---|
| Long Wave Frequencies (LF) | 0.5 m (passive) | Animal identification and reading of objects with a high water content |
| Shortwave Frequencies (HF) | 0.5 m (passive) | Physical access control |
| Decimeter waves (UHF) | 3–6 m (passive) | Warehouse and logistics area (pallets) |
| Microwaves | ≈10 m (active) | Vehicle Identification |
Technically, longer distances can be achieved, but only the specified ranges at permitted transmission field strengths are typical. The illumination field strength for passive tags (query by readers) is about 1,000 times higher than the transmission field strength of active tags (reception by readers).
Logistics is the main area of application. The breakthrough to general expansion sometimes fails because the business case is budgeted across company boundaries (see also Reporting Point (Logistics)). Examples from 2013 are:
Electronic Road Pricing System in Singapore
The e-Plate license plates are automatically identified on readers. As a result, access controls, inner-city toll systems and also section control speed measurements are possible. If the sensor network is correspondingly dense, path profiles can also be created. In a large-scale test in April/May 2006, the British Department of Transport had about 50,000 license plates equipped with RFID radio chips. The aim is to collect information on the counterfeiting rate as well as the validity of registration and insurance coverage. Detection requires a distance of less than ten meters.
As of 2006, wagons and locomotives in the USA and Canada are marked with an RFID tag on both sides, which is read at about 500 stations during the journey. [16]
The automotive industry uses RFID for the automated documentation of test vehicles and prototype parts (Transparent Prototype project).
As early as 2003, the European Central Bank negotiated with the Japanese electronics company Hitachi about the integration of RFID transponders into euro banknotes. [17] The so-called μ chip (0.16 mm² × 0.064 mm thick) has a 38-digit number (128 bits). [18] Banknotes marked with such an RFID chip are said to be better protected against counterfeiting. Due to the costs associated with the implementation and data protection issues, the introduction is not yet planned.
Debit and credit cards with a wireless payment system[19] also allow identification. The security risk that could arise from possibly unnoticed reading and debiting is countered by limiting the payment amounts to a maximum amount or to a certain credit balance. Examples include Mastercard's PayPass system.
RFID chips are included in all German passports issued since 1 November 2005 and in all identity cards from 1 November 2010. Since 1 March 2010, the Swiss passport has been delivered with an RFID chip. [20] In November 2004, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of the "VeriChip" in humans. [21] The transponder is applied under the skin. It advertises the easy availability of vital information in the event of an emergency.
Patient wristbands link their data to the patient information system in the hospital via the medical staff's PDA. [22]
Glass transponder for animal identification (right) with associated application device (left)
RFID transponders have been used on large farm animals since the 1970s. Implants for pets (EU pet passport, ISO/IEC 11784 and ISO/IEC 11785) are also used. The animals in the zoo also receive such implants.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends the use of RFID in the fight against counterfeit drugs. For the transport of temperature-sensitive medical devices, RFID tags with sensor functions are used on the transport containers. The record documents a violation of transport conditions and supports the protection of patients by qualified discarding of incorrectly transported goods.
For reliable control and electronic monitoring of refilling and filling processes, the RFID antenna is located in the coupling half on the system side, the RFID transponder in the movable coupling half, e.g. on the hose side of a tank car. When coupled, information is then transmitted contactlessly. The system control system can then automatically start subsequent process steps.
RFID tags are used to make printed circuit boards or other components traceable. [24]
RFID tag of a garment
RFID tag sewn into a garment from the French sports outfitter Decathlon. Front and back as well as transmitted light scan.
In the textile and apparel industry, an increasing use of RFID is likely due to a higher margin compared to other industries. Lemmi Fashion (children's fashion) was the first company to convert its supply chain to RFID and implement an integration with the merchandise management system. In 2006, the company Levi Strauss & Co. began equipping its jeans with RFID tags. [25] The company Gerry Weber has been working on the technology since 2004 and since 2010 has integrated an RFID tag into all garments, which also acts as article surveillance. [26][27][28] RFID has been used by the fashion company C&A since 2012[29], and since 2013/2014 by Adler Fashion Markets[30][31]. Since 2013, the sporting goods chain Decathlon has been sewing RFID labels into textiles of its own brands and attaching them to third-party products.[32]
For sea containers, mechanical seals with additional RFID tags have been designed. They are either used repeatedly (semi-active RFID tags according to ISO/IEC 17363, from 2007) or used once (passive RFID tags according to ISO/IEC 18185, from 2007). So far, there is no obligation to use such electronic seals.
As part of the ignition key, transponders form the core of the electronic immobilizer. The transponder is read by a reading coil at the ignition lock and, with its stored code, represents the supplementary key element of the vehicle key. Crypto transponders are usually used for this purpose, the content of which cannot be manipulated without destroying them.
This anti-theft device requires a lot of effort in the event of a lost key.
In Asia and larger cities, contactless, rechargeable tickets are common. The global market leader for so-called ticketing is NXP (emerged from Philips) with its Mifare system. In the U.S. and Europe, access control and time recording are often implemented with RFID technology. Some credit card providers use RFID chips as successors to magnetic stripes or contact chips.
In 2006, RFID technology was used in Germany for tickets for the Football World Cup. The aim was to reduce the black market by tying the card to the buyer. Bayer 04 Leverkusen, VfL Wolfsburg and Alemannia Aachen use this technology in Bundesliga matches.
Almost all major ski resorts in the Alps use contactless ski passes.
In libraries of all sizes and types, RFID is used for media booking and backup. Prominent installations include the Munich City Library, the Hamburg Public Libraries, the Vienna Main Library, the Stuttgart City Library and the main libraries of the Graz University of Technology and the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. In 2013, the network of Berlin's public libraries also completed the conversion of media management to RFID. The library of the University of Konstanz is also equipping its media with RFID technology as part of the renovation.
The RFID readers of the libraries are able to read the RFID transponders in batches (bulk capture). This simplifies the borrowing and return process. Return machines allow returns outside of opening hours. At the doors and stairways there are readers similar to the security barriers in department stores. They check that the loan is correct. The inventory of the collection and the finding of missing media becomes easier and faster.
Retail chains such as Metro, Rewe, Tesco, and Walmart are interested in using RFID to control the flow of goods on the sales floor. This makes it possible to automate the payment process and control the inventory. The Chinese retail chain BingoBox operates small markets without staff and uses RFID tags on every piece of merchandise. [33]
In industrial applications in enclosed areas, driverless transport systems are used, in which the position is determined with the help of transponders embedded in the ground at a short distance from each other on the basis of their known position via the read identity and via interpolation. Such systems are dependent on the fact that only previously determined routes and routes are used. For rail vehicles, the magnetically coupled Eurobalise is used.
RFID chip on garbage can
In the Austrian districts of Kufstein and Kitzbühel, an RFID-based garbage can detection system was in use from 1993 to 2015. [34]
RFID chip in garbage can (plastic button on the edge)
In the district of Celle, garbage cans have been marked with chips since about 1993[35]. Residual waste, organic and paper bins are equipped with it. The yellow bins do not have electronic identification.
In the German cities of Bremen and Dresden, garbage cans are equipped with RFID transponders for fee-based collection.
In the UK, several hundred thousand garbage cans have been fitted with RFID transponders without the knowledge of citizens. [36] The background is said to be the intention of the British municipalities to record the recycling behaviour of citizens. [37]
Transponders on or in the key are used to check if workstations are equipped with appropriate readers, as well as for user authentication for special external mobile security hard drives if they are equipped with appropriate readers in the housing.
Transponders on or in the key are used for access control if the doors are equipped with appropriate readers or with corresponding locking cylinders with a reading option.
Transponders serve as a digital identification feature in sports competitions on the shoe (strap) or in the bib number of a runner or on or in the context of a racing bike (product examples: ChampionChip, Bibchip, DigiChip)
At terminals, the times of coming and going, possibly also the break times, are recorded when the user brings his RFID medium (usually chip card or key fob) within reading range.
In the fire and rescue service, RFID transponders can be used to recognize people based on the transponders and thus organize the distribution of clothing, protective equipment and accessories in the clothing store, among other things.
Transponders are available on certain clothing, which simplify the inventory and management of garments.
Some manufacturers of loading aids offer solutions with integrated RFID transponders in accordance with ISO/IEC 18000-6C. Examples are transport pallets made of plastic or wood as well as small load carriers. [38][39][40] The integrated transponders can be e.g. can be used for load carrier or container management or, after the temporary marriage of the aid to the goods to be transported, as an identification feature of the loading unit in the context of supply chain event management. [41]
By 2020, airports should be equipped with readers for RFID chips[42] integrated into the baggage tag[42] with personal data such as the name and gender of the owner. This is intended to reduce the loss of luggage and to better record the luggage. At airports such as Las Vegas since 2016[43] and Hong Kong, Milan-Malpensa, Lisbon, Aalborg, RFID technology had already been introduced in 2017 in addition to barcodes. [44] By the end of 2023, almost all flight baggage is to be equipped with it. Without RFID, 1.8% of baggage would have been misdirected. [45]
| Industry | Kum. Number (in millions) |
|---|---|
| Transportation/Automotive | 1000 |
| Finance/Security | 670 |
| Retail/Consumer Goods | 230 |
| Leisure | 100 |
| Laundries | 75 |
| Libraries | 70 |
| Manufacturing | 50 |
| Animals/Agriculture | 45 |
| Health service | 40 |
| Air traffic | 25 |
| Logistics/Post | 10 |
| Military | 2 |
| Other | 80 |
| Total | 2397 |
Cumulatively, a total of 2.397 billion RFID chips were sold between 1944 and 2005. [46] The exact distribution by application is as follows:
In 2005, 565 million high-frequency RFID tags (according to ISO/IEC 14443) were sold, which is mainly due to the increased demand in the logistics sector. [47] In 2006, global sales were expected to reach 1.3 billion RFID tags. [48] Partly due to the increasing standardization of RFID solutions and the increased exchange among interested parties, market researchers had to lower their forecast for market growth in 2007 by 15%. In 2007, for example, it was expected to generate less revenue of around $3.7 billion for RFID services and solutions. [49]
In industrial applications, the cost of the chips and their expected degression are not the decisive factor. Much more significant are the installation costs for seemingly banal items such as cabling, sockets, transformers and antennas and so on, which are installed in conventional craftsmanship and for which therefore hardly any cost degression is to be expected. In comparisons of the profitability of RFID to barcodes, for example, it was and remained these infrastructure costs that could not be offset by the expected rationalization returns of an RFID system. [50][51]
The costs for the transponders (i.e. the RFID chips) range from 35 euros per piece for active transponders in small quantities to 5 to 10 cents per piece for simple passive transponders with purchases of several billions. [52][53]
A number of universities offer courses in the field of RFID within existing training courses. Since the summer semester of 2009, for example, it has been possible to complete a master's degree at Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences.
An RFID license plate is first and foremost an open – i.e. readable for all those equipped with the necessary technology – individual license plate. In connection with concerns about RFID chips, there is therefore talk of "spy chips". [55]
The limitation of RFID technology can be recognized by the technically usable range and the selected fixed information. RFID chips do not provide information about the exact location (position), orientation (direction) and movement (speed), but the identity of the license plate without further information about the wearer of the license plate.
However, location information is always obtained indirectly through the knowledge of the location of the reader. RFIDs attached to portable objects and thus carried by persons are a danger to informational self-determination, since the data read out can be personally related if the connection is known (see below). In this respect, RFID is similar to a switched on mobile phone, the location of which can be roughly determined from the nearest radio cell. However, due to the comparatively short range of a few meters with passive RFID chips, the location determination at the moment of reading is much more accurate, even more precise than with civilian use of GPS. By strategically placing several readers at various traffic junctions, bottlenecks, doors and the like, it would also be possible to create a movement profile that is relatively accurate in terms of time and space. The danger for informational self-determination lies in particular from the fact that many RFIDs are hidden in place, so the wearer does not know that he is carrying them, in combination with a completely unnoticed reading process.
During the protests in Hong Kong in 2019/2020, RFID shielding measures of the demonstrators were cited as an example of the mechanization of the protests. [56]
StopRFID campaign logo
The danger of RFID technology, for example, lies in the loss of informational self-determination, i.e. the individual no longer has any influence on what information is disclosed due to the "hidden" transmitters. Therefore, the imminent mass use of RFID transponders is problematic from a data protection point of view. To avoid this, some critics suggest the destruction of RFID transponders after purchase. This could be done (similar to disabling the anti-theft device) at the checkout. As a rule, it is not possible for the consumer to prove that a transponder has really been destroyed or that its memory has really been deleted. [57] For this reason, the technique is often pejoratively referred to as a sniffer chip or sniffer chip. [58][59]
Furthermore, the integration of additional, undocumented memory cells or transponders is conceivable. For the consumer, an RFID transponder thus becomes a black box, which is why some demand seamless monitoring of the entire production process.
In 2003, the Metro Group equipped some of its customer cards with RFID transponders without informing its customers of this. As a result, the company was awarded the negative Big Brother Award. Metro is continuing its RFID trials in its Future Store, but has exchanged the loyalty cards in question. This is what privacy activists see as a result of their protests. In general, a customer can successfully defend themselves against such practices if they are not done secretly. In 2007, Deutsche Bahn AG received the aforementioned Big Brother Award because it continued to equip the BahnCard 100 with RFID chips without informing customers.
According to the current state of knowledge, RFID tags applied to outer packaging cannot be recycled as well as outer packaging without RFID tags. Homogeneous packaging material such as waste glass, waste paper or plastic can be contaminated by the RFID chips made of copper and other metals, which are difficult to separate. Possible risks of contamination of the recycled material by RFID chips can mean more complex recycling or inferior quality of the resulting raw materials. [62][63]
Currently, there are no rules for the disposal of transponders as electronic waste for mass use, such as supermarket items. Among other things, research is being carried out on new materials (e.g. polymer-based), which should serve to further reduce manufacturing costs and open up new areas of application (e.g. transponders incorporated into ID cards and clothing)[64].
Another point is the resource consumption of RFID transponders. Precious metals are lost with them in a diffuse manner in landfills and waste incineration plants. Although a single transponder contains only a small amount of precious metal, a large number of chips (e.g. in food packaging) would significantly increase resource consumption.
In June 2008, a study[65] was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association showing that numerous diagnostic measurements are falsified by the electromagnetic waves required for reading RFID. [66] Medical devices, which are present in every well-equipped intensive care unit, reacted with varying degrees of sensitivity with measured value distortions. "At a distance of one centimeter to six meters, 34 out of 123 tests showed a malfunction of the medical equipment. In 22 cases, these disorders were judged to be dangerous because ventilators failed or automatically changed the respiratory rate, because infusion pumps stopped or external pacemakers failed to work, because a dialysis machine failed or the ECG monitor showed a non-existent arrhythmia." [67]
Note: The link was automatically marked as broken. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Announcement by TextilWirtschaft of 12 December 2013, retrieved on 23 April 2014
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